Collection · COL-08

From Transistors to Qubits

The hardware behind computing, from Ada Lovelace's notes and 1971 to a film made of molecules and the quantum fridge.

11 case files · 22 quiz questions · Tech, Science, Media, People

11 case files in this collection

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Free PDF: every quick fact with its ID, the write-ups, sources and a quiz with an answer key.

What Is in From Transistors to Qubits?

11 case files on the hardware behind computing, from Ada Lovelace's program notes and a 1971 microprocessor and a film made by moving single molecules to quantum chips and the data centers that run them. Intel's first microprocessor, the 4004 (1971), had 2,300 transistors. NVIDIA's GH100 chip has 80 billion on one 814 mm² die. DD-018 A superconducting quantum chip sits on the bottom plate of a dilution refrigerator at around 10–15 millikelvin, more than 180 times colder than deep space. DD-012

The Case Files, in Order

  1. 01
    DID YOU
    KNOW?    Shrinking CircuitsDD-018

    DD-018Tech

    Shrinking Circuits

    One chip can now hold 80 billion transistors.

    Open case file →
  2. 02
    DID YOU
    KNOW?    TeraFabDD-016

    DD-016Tech

    TeraFab

    Musk's planned chip plant would cover 100 million square feet.

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  3. 03
    DID YOU
    KNOW?    Quantum InfrastructureDD-012

    DD-012Science+ Tech

    Quantum Infrastructure

    This golden chandelier keeps qubits colder than outer space.

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  4. 04
    DID YOU
    KNOW?    Ocean-3DD-022

    DD-022Tech

    Ocean-3

    This giant steel ball is an AI data center powered by waves.

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  5. 05
    DID YOU
    KNOW?    Data CentersDD-029

    DD-029Tech

    Data Centers

    The internet lives in warehouses full of humming servers.

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  6. 06
    DID YOU
    KNOW?    Atomic Stop-motionDD-663

    DD-663Science+ Tech+ Media

    Atomic Stop-motion

    A cartoon drawn in molecules.

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  7. 07
    DID YOU
    KNOW?    Ada All-TimeDD-095

    DD-095People+ Tech

    Ada All-Time

    A program was written for a computer that was never built.

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  8. 08
    DID YOU
    KNOW?    The Future Is NowDD-238

    DD-238Tech+ Science

    The Future Is Now

    Every chip starts as a thin slice of silicon called a wafer.

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  9. 09
    DID YOU
    KNOW?    EntanglementDD-080

    DD-080Science

    Entanglement

    Entangled particles stay correlated however far apart they are.

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  10. 10
    DID YOU
    KNOW?    Quantum ShenanigansDD-338

    DD-338Science

    Quantum Shenanigans

    One equation tells how a quantum system changes over time.

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  11. 11
    DID YOU
    KNOW?    A Look InsideDD-389

    DD-389Tech+ Science

    A Look Inside

    Decapping strips a chip's package to expose the silicon die.

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Collection Quiz

All quizzes →

22 questions from all 11 case files in From Transistors to Qubits. Test Your Knowledge: answers are revealed instantly.

  1. How many transistors did Intel's 4004, the first commercial microprocessor (1971), have?

    1. 23
    2. 2,300
    3. 230,000
    4. 2.3 million
    Show the answer

    Answer: B. 2,300 Now You Know: The 4004 squeezed 2,300 transistors onto one chip. Source: DD-018 · Shrinking Circuits · Write-up · Exhibit B (2,300 transistors in 1971) · Intel 4004 Microprocessor (Smithsonian National Museum of American History); Intel's Microprocessor (Computer History Museum, Revolution); Microprocessors: the engines of the digital age (Proc. Royal Society A, Furber 2017)

  2. What process feature size was the Intel 4004 made with?

    1. 10 micrometers
    2. 10 nanometers
    3. 1 millimeter
    4. 100 nanometers
    Show the answer

    Answer: A. 10 micrometers Now You Know: The 4004 used a 10 µm silicon-gate pMOS process. Source: DD-018 · Shrinking Circuits · Write-up · Exhibit C (Ten micrometers) · Intel's Microprocessor (Computer History Museum, Revolution); Microprocessors: the engines of the digital age (Proc. Royal Society A, Furber 2017); Intel 4004 Microprocessor (Smithsonian National Museum of American History)

  3. In which Texas county is Terafab planned?

    1. Grimes County
    2. Travis County
    3. Harris County
    4. Bastrop County
    Show the answer

    Answer: A. Grimes County Now You Know: Terafab is planned for Grimes County, about 20 miles east of College Station. Source: DD-016 · TeraFab · Write-up · Exhibit A (A chip plant in Grimes County) · Governor Abbott Announces SpaceX Expansion in Grimes County (Office of the Texas Governor, Aug 6, 2026); SpaceX Records Fight Exposes $119B Terafab Buildout Plans (Engineering News-Record)

  4. How big is the first-phase investment announced for Terafab?

    1. About $1.68 billion
    2. More than $16.8 billion
    3. About $168 billion
    4. $119 billion
    Show the answer

    Answer: B. More than $16.8 billion Now You Know: The first phase is a capital investment of more than $16.8 billion; $119B is the potential four-phase total. Source: DD-016 · TeraFab · Write-up · Exhibit C ($16.8 billion to start) · Governor Abbott Announces SpaceX Expansion in Grimes County (Office of the Texas Governor, Aug 6, 2026); SpaceX Records Fight Exposes $119B Terafab Buildout Plans (Engineering News-Record); Terafab: Texas JETI primary-source document guide (ENR, Oct 2026)

  5. What is the gold 'chandelier' seen in photos of quantum computers?

    1. A dilution refrigerator
    2. A cooling fan array
    3. The quantum processor itself
    4. A power supply
    Show the answer

    Answer: A. A dilution refrigerator Now You Know: It's a multi-stage dilution refrigerator, and each plate down is colder. Source: DD-012 · Quantum Infrastructure · Write-up · Exhibit B (The 'chandelier' is a fridge) · An in-depth look at an IBM quantum computer (Popular Science); How Does a Dilution Refrigerator Work? (Bluefors)

  6. Where in the fridge does the quantum chip sit?

    1. At the top, at room temperature
    2. In the middle
    3. At the bottom, on the coldest plate
    4. Outside the fridge
    Show the answer

    Answer: C. At the bottom, on the coldest plate Now You Know: The processor is mounted on the mixing-chamber plate, the coldest stage, at the bottom. Source: DD-012 · Quantum Infrastructure · Write-up · Exhibit C (Chip at the bottom) · Microwave Package Design for Superconducting Quantum Processors (PRX Quantum 2, 020306, 2021); An in-depth look at an IBM quantum computer (Popular Science)

  7. Roughly how tall is a Panthalassa Ocean-3 node?

    1. About 8.5 m
    2. About 25 m
    3. About 85 m
    4. About 850 m
    Show the answer

    Answer: C. About 85 m Now You Know: Each node is about 85 m of plate steel, close to the height of Big Ben. Source: DD-022 · Ocean-3 · Write-up · Exhibit B (About 85 meters of steel) · Can floating data centres meet AI's huge energy demand? (New Scientist); Building inference data centers on the high seas (Latitude Media, Catalyst podcast with CEO Garth Sheldon-Coulson); Silicon Valley bets $200M on AI data centers floating in the ocean (Ars Technica, May 5, 2026)

  8. How does Ocean-3 make its electricity?

    1. Solar panels on the sphere
    2. Seawater forced up its tube by the waves spins turbines
    3. A small diesel generator
    4. A power cable from shore
    Show the answer

    Answer: B. Seawater forced up its tube by the waves spins turbines Now You Know: As waves lift and drop the node, seawater is driven up the tube into the sphere, where it spins turbines. Source: DD-022 · Ocean-3 · Write-up · Exhibit C (How the waves make power) · Can floating data centres meet AI's huge energy demand? (New Scientist); Silicon Valley bets $200M on AI data centers floating in the ocean (Ars Technica, May 5, 2026); Panthalassa unveils wave-powered floating data center platform (DCD, May 1, 2026)

  9. Roughly what share of the world's electricity did data centers use in 2024?

    1. 0.1%
    2. 1.5%
    3. 10%
    4. 25%
    Show the answer

    Answer: B. 1.5% Now You Know: The IEA estimates about 415 TWh, roughly 1.5% of global electricity. Source: DD-029 · Data Centers · Write-up · Exhibit B (1.5% of the world's electricity) · Energy and AI (IEA, 2025, full report PDF); Energy and AI: Executive summary (IEA)

  10. Which country used the most data-center electricity in 2024?

    1. China
    2. India
    3. United States
    4. Germany
    Show the answer

    Answer: C. United States Now You Know: The U.S. accounted for about 45%, ahead of China (25%) and Europe (15%). Source: DD-029 · Data Centers · Write-up · Exhibit B (1.5% of the world's electricity) · Energy and AI (IEA, 2025, full report PDF); Energy and AI: Executive summary (IEA)

  11. Which molecules were moved to make the film?

    1. Carbon monoxide
    2. Water
    3. Carbon dioxide
    4. Helium
    Show the answer

    Answer: A. Carbon monoxide Now You Know: Carbon monoxide, on copper. Source: DD-663 · Atomic Stop-motion · Write-up · Exhibit A (The record) · Guinness World Records (May 3, 2013): IBM goes atomic for smallest stop-motion film; Guinness World Records: Smallest stop-motion film

  12. What tool moved the molecules?

    1. Scanning tunneling microscope
    2. Optical tweezers
    3. Electron beam welder
    4. Laser cutter
    Show the answer

    Answer: A. Scanning tunneling microscope Now You Know: A scanning tunneling microscope (STM). Source: DD-663 · Atomic Stop-motion · Write-up · Exhibit B (The tool) · Guinness World Records (May 3, 2013): IBM goes atomic for smallest stop-motion film; Wikipedia: A Boy and His Atom (citing BBC, AP and IBM)

  13. What was the Analytical Engine?

    1. A proposed mechanical computer
    2. A steam train
    3. A telescope
    4. A loom
    Show the answer

    Answer: A. A proposed mechanical computer Now You Know: Designed by Charles Babbage. Source: DD-095 · Ada All-Time · Write-up · Exhibit A (Analytical Engine) · Wikipedia: Ada Lovelace

  14. What language did Lovelace translate from?

    1. French
    2. German
    3. Latin
    4. Italian
    Show the answer

    Answer: A. French Now You Know: Menabrea's article. Source: DD-095 · Ada All-Time · Write-up · Exhibit B (1843 translation) · Wikipedia: Ada Lovelace; Wikipedia: Note G

  15. What are chips built on?

    1. Silicon wafers
    2. Glass plates
    3. Copper sheets
    4. Silicone rubber
    Show the answer

    Answer: A. Silicon wafers Now You Know: Very pure silicon. Source: DD-238 · The Future Is Now · Write-up · Exhibit A (Silicon wafers) · Wikipedia: Semiconductor device fabrication

  16. What coats the wafer?

    1. Photoresist
    2. Paint
    3. Oil
    4. Gold
    Show the answer

    Answer: A. Photoresist Now You Know: Light-sensitive. Source: DD-238 · The Future Is Now · Write-up · Exhibit B (Photoresist) · Wikipedia: Photolithography

  17. What do entangled particles share?

    1. A quantum state
    2. A charge only
    3. A color
    4. A mass
    Show the answer

    Answer: A. A quantum state Now You Know: One state. Source: DD-080 · Entanglement · Write-up · Exhibit A (Shared state) · Wikipedia: Quantum entanglement

  18. Does distance break the correlation?

    1. No
    2. Yes
    3. Only over 1 km
    4. Only in water
    Show the answer

    Answer: A. No Now You Know: Any distance. Source: DD-080 · Entanglement · Write-up · Exhibit B (Correlated) · Wikipedia: Quantum entanglement

  19. Who published the equation?

    1. Erwin Schrödinger
    2. Albert Einstein
    3. Niels Bohr
    4. Isaac Newton
    Show the answer

    Answer: A. Erwin Schrödinger Now You Know: Austrian physicist. Source: DD-338 · Quantum Shenanigans · Write-up · Exhibit A (Equation) · Wikipedia: Schrödinger equation

  20. When?

    1. 1926
    2. 1905
    3. 1687
    4. 1969
    Show the answer

    Answer: A. 1926 Now You Know: Early quantum era. Source: DD-338 · Quantum Shenanigans · Write-up · Exhibit B (1926) · Wikipedia: Schrödinger equation

  21. What does decapping expose?

    1. The silicon die
    2. The battery
    3. The screen
    4. The fan
    Show the answer

    Answer: A. The silicon die Now You Know: Inside. Source: DD-389 · A Look Inside · Write-up · Exhibit A (Purpose) · Wikipedia: Decapping

  22. Which acid is used?

    1. Nitric
    2. Citric
    3. Acetic
    4. Lactic
    Show the answer

    Answer: A. Nitric Now You Know: Strong. Source: DD-389 · A Look Inside · Write-up · Exhibit B (Acids) · Wikipedia: Decapping